BRIXTON: BLACK COMMUNITY, RASTAS, RIOTS and SQUATS
BLACK COMMUNITY
More about Afro-Caribbean people in Britain
Hogarth
https://minorhist.hypotheses.org/1287
Legacy of slave trade
https://www.ourmigrationstory.org.uk/oms/slavery-and-the-african-diaspora-journeys-from-the-caribbean-to-britain
London 1960s-80s according to French Tv
https://www.francetvinfo.fr/culture/patrimoine/histoire/entre-racisme-et-discriminations-ce-que-revele-la-serie-small-axe-sur-le-londres-des-annees-60-a-80_4327437.html
Transatlantic slave trade
https://heritagecollections.parliament.uk/stories/the-transatlantic-slave-trade/
IN BRIXTON: the EMPIRE WINDRUSH ARRIVAL
The first group of post-war Caribbean immigrants arrived in London, in 1948, from KINGSTON, on board of the liner EMPIRE WINDRUSH.
Many of the group settled in Brixton, a once prosperous suburb that was rapidly decaying into one of the city’s poorest districts.
Jamaicans were predominant amongst the many people who settled in Brixton in the 50s and 60s, and this is reflected in the area association with REGGAE and RASTAFARIANISM.
Brixton became London’s the most prominent Black district and, in the 80s, the symbol of Black cultural and political self-assertion, acquiring national attention as a result of the anti-police RIOTS by black youths .
The West Indian community, who arrived here in the 50s and 60s has defined the character of the area until very recently.
Brixton is changing though. South-Americans, Brazilians and Europeans live now in the place, and the mix has made of this place a pretty cool neighbourhood.
And DALSTON has acquired and increased importance for the black community.
Butthere is still a lot to experience here, as many black institutions and organisations are still based here.
MARCUS GARVEY
AMY GARVEY
NOTTING HILL
The following text is from ETHNIC LONDON
Marcus Garvey was a pioneering advocate of black pride, African culture, and independent black political and cultural organisation. Born in Jamaica in 1887, he came to London in 1912, where he worked on the magazine Africa Times and Orient Review and studied African history and literature.
It was in London that Garvey first saw himself as a potential black leader: I asked myself "Where is the black man's Government?" "Where is his King and his kingdom?" "Where is his President, his country, and his ambassador, his army, his navy, his men of big affairs?" I could not find them, and then I declared "I will help to make them" ... I saw before me then ... a new world of black men, not peons, serfs, dogs and slaves, but a nation of sturdy men making their impress upon civilisation and causing a new light to dawn upon the human race. I could not remain in London any more'. - Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey (1923 and 1925).
In July 1914 Garvey returned to Jamaica, where he founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association. Following its move to the United States in 1916, the UNIA grew at a phenomenal rate. At its peak in the early 1920s it had millions of followers, and was spreading its message of black self-assertion around the globe. Yet Garvey's plans for a black-run shipping line and for the resettlement of black people in Africa ended in utter failure, and he was imprisoned in the United States on a charge of fraud.
In 1927, after serving almost three years in jail, Garvey was deported to Jamaica, where he continued his activities despite persistent harassment from the colonial authorities. By the time he moved back to London in 1935, Garvey was an isolated figure, cold-shouldered by many black activists who thought he was out of touch with political developments. He died penniless in West Kensington in 1940. Buried in London, his remains were disinterred in 1964 and reburied in Jamaica.
Garvey was a powerful, flamboyant and controversial character, and his rise and fall was a phenomenon in itself. His speeches and writings have had an enormous influence, particularly on the development of RASTAFARIANISM and on the black power movement in the United States. Many of his pithy statements are still in currency, as for example: 'Africa for the Africans, ‘I shall teach the black man to see beauty in himself, and 'A people without the knowledge of their past history, origin and culture, is like a tree without roots'
HAILE SELASSIE
SYLVIA PANKHURST,
WOODFORD
In October 1930 the Crown Prince RAS TAFARI (born 1892) was crowned Emperor of Ethiopia, Africa's oldest independent state. On his coronation he took the name Haile Selassie, which means Might of the Trinity.
In 1936 Selassie was forced to leave Ethiopia after its invasion by the Italians, and was carried into exile in Britain by a British cruiser. On his arrival at Waterloo Station, SEl, he was greated by cheering crowds of British sympathisers, including representatives from the black community.
After suffering the humiliation of defeat, Selassie was greatly moved and encouraged by this show of support: 'At the railway station in London the British public gave Us a great welcome...The people assembled there demonstrated to Us their participation in our grief, and We admired the tenderness and kindness of the British people'.
After a trip to Geneva, where he denounced the Italian invasion in a famous address to the League of Nations, Selassie settled in a house on the outskirts of Bath in Somerset and waited for a chance to return to Ethiopia. It came in 1940 when Italy declared war on Britain, and by the following year Selassie was back on his throne after British and Ethiopian forces had driven the Italians out of the country.
In post-wars Africa SELASSIE was a prominent campaigner against colonial , and playrd a leading role in the formation of the Organisation of African Unity. He ruled Ethiopia until 1974, when he was deposed by a military junta and put under palace arrest. According to the junta Selassie died from natural causes on 27 August 1975.
RASTAFARIS, RASTAS, RASTAFARIANISM
The black religious movement that became known as Rastafarianism grew up in Jamaica in the 1930s. It has no centralised creed, and beliefs vary widely between different sects, but most Rastafarians agree on the following points:
- Emperor Haile Selassie is the Black Messiah. (Rastafarians support the idea of the Black Messiah with prophecies from the Bible. Selassie denied all such claims made on his behalf.)
- The necessity of the return of black people to Africa spiritually or physically.
- The necessity of the redemption and rise of black people internationally in cultural, political, spiritual and economic affairs.
Rastafarians characteristically
-wear long plaited or matted hair called dreadlocks, and
-clothing which bears the Ethiopian colours of red, green and gold.
- Marijuana is smoked as a sacred herb, the consumption of pork is forbidden - and a distinctive vocabulary is used which features such words as natty, skank, dread, dub, Babylon and Jah.
Although there have been Rastafarians in London since the 1950s, it was not until the 1970s, and in particular through the influence of reggae artists like Bob Marley, that they made a significant impact here. Many British blacks adopted the outward trappings and cultural perspectives of Rastafarianism in that period but only a very tiny minority took on its religious commitments.
A bit of history
1860. Christian Revival.
US Pentecostal missionaries sent to JAMAICA. An impoverished country, socially disenfranchised.A reaction to British RULE and culture.
With the CORONATION of H.S. the clergy called him
ETHIOPIANISM, born: movement favouring the return to AFRICA.
BLYDEN preaching: PRIDE in African traditions, need to preserve them. And, following Biblical mention, Ethiopia means Africa.
Great influence! MARCUS GARVEY (Jamaican in the US), a BLACK NATIONALIST, in favour of a global racial separation and of relocation to Africa.
Instead, DU BOIS was for integration.
1916. A rumour… M.G calls (in a play! ) to look to Africa…a new King, on its way…
1930. H.SELASSIE is coronated, and for RASTAFARIS M.G. becomes a prophet. However, M.G. did not have a high regard either for RASTA. or H.S.
According to Jamaican preachers H.S.was the BLACK MESSIAH, JESUS returned, following the prophecies of the BOOK OF REVEL., of DANIEL, of the SALMS…
With LEONARD HOWELL (a Biblical prophecy have been fulfilled) begins the RASTA movement, becoming the leading figure. For him BLACK is superior, and Jamaicans should owe allegiance to H.S, instead of to the British monarch.
HOWELL was arrested, charged with sedition, imprisoned. He established a RASTA community, PINNACLE. Later, he f. the ETHIOPIAN SALVATION SOCIETY. Pinnacle was shut. ESS, raided. He was confined to a mental asylum.
With the INVASION of Ethiopia by MUSSOLINI’s ITALY, sympathy grew for the African country. H.S f. in 1937 the ETH.WORLD FEDERATION.
When HS reclaimed the throne, in 1941: the prophesies were seen as fulfilled.
In the 50s RAST. acquired a CONTRACULTURAL stance, entering in conflict with Jamaican wider society.
ABROAD it becomes more visible through the popularity of REGGAE. USIC, inspired by RASTA.
In the 1980s following the death of H.S. and BOB MARLEY RASTA declined.
It Still has a presence though: 700.000 to 1 mil.?. In Jamaica and all over the world. Most RASTAS are people from African descent.Some groups are exclusively black.
Recognition
A RELIGION, born in Jamaica.
Religious, Social movement, with NO CENTRAL authoritiy.
Diversity: there are several MANSIONS OF RASTAFARI (NYAHBINGHI, BOBO ASHANTI, TWELVE TRIBES OF ISRAEL…) offering different interpretations.
Its belief, based on a specific interpretation of the Bible.
Monoteist. JAH, who partially resides in each individual.
The EMP./ETH. is given special importance, being regarded as the SECOND coming of JESUS, a reincarnation of JAH or as a human PROPHET.
An AFRO-CENTRIC religion, focused on Afr. DIASPORA, oppressed by BABYLON, or WESTERN SOCIETY.
Many RASTAS call for RESETTLEMENT to the PROMISED land, ZION. Some even have views of AFRICAN SUPREMACISM.
Religious practices
Practices are called LIVITY.
Communal meetings are GROUNDATIONS.
Music, chanting, discussion, smoking cannabis (regarded as a sacrament with beneficial properties ).
They emphasise LIVING NATURALLY, adhering to an ITAL (VITAL without V) dietary requirements, signifying UNITY with NATURE. ++
A rejection of MIDDLE. LASS standards, in dress, speech, behaviour (has this something to do with a certain image of lunatic, fringe, even threatening?. Is this the cause of its attack and persecution by governments, and of its ostracism?).
They wear DREADLOCKS.
They follow PATRIARCHAL gender roles.
LIVITY
No emphasis on hierarchy. No professional priests. No need of mediator between the worshippers and the divinity.
It has elders though. Elder is an honorific title bestowed upon those with a good reputation. And not necessarily with functions. They oversee ritual meetings and help interpret current events.
GROUNDINGS
Relationships between like-minded practitioners. In a commune or a yard. The elder presides, supervises and keeps disco.
They (from a handful to several hundred men; there are all female grounding circles) play drums, chant, sing hymns, recite poetry, smoke ganja.
REASONING: They discuss about religious principles and about their relevance today. Argumentative but not in a combative way.
REVELATIONS are unveiled, reassuring each other of the correctness of their beliefs.
PRAYERS open/close the meeting. A supplication of God for the sick, the hungry, for the infants…for the destruction of the enemies.
Large groundings were called GROUNDATIONS, in the 50s. Later NYABINGHI ISSEMBLIES took place in dates associated to H.S, M.G, to Ethiopia or Jamaica. Open air assemblies or in temporary “temples” or “tabernacles”. They lasted for 5/7 day.
CANNABIS
Ganja, marihuana, Callie, iley, herb, holy herb, grass, weed.
Smoked during groundings on other contexts. Used as well in tea, in cooking, as a spice. And as a medicine.
Considered a SACRAMENT, promoted by the B. An object of communion with God and with Broth. As a healer, as an inducer of feelings of peace and love, as a facilitator of introspection (discover the inner divinity), as a counter of immoral practices.
Typically, a SPLIFF, a hand rolled cigarette, rolled together with a prayer, offered to Jah. And lit when the prayer is complete.
At other timed, it is smoked in a water pipe (CHALICE, KUT HIE, CHILLUM, STEAMER), passed counter-clockwise.
Arab traders introduced cannabis to South and Central Africa.
Brahman, Sudhud, Shamans had used it
Enslaved BAKONGO arrived to Jamaica brought cannabis: they smoked in in religious ceremonies, in order to facilitate possession by ancestral spirits. They called it KUMINA.
Those practices were developed by early RASTAS, like HOWELL (he had a Hindu priest, LALOO, as adviser)
1800. HINDUS arriving in Jam., as indented servants of the British, brought cannabis with them.
JAM. As cannabis was ilegal, RASTAS stated a protest. Since, possession in small amounts ha Ben decriminalised, and legalised for med./sci. Uses.
2019. BARBADOS. Within religious settings Rasta can use cannabis. Land has Ben pledged to grow it.
The BIBLE
The Holy Book, central to RASTA. A literalist interpretation.Through meditation and intuition the reach the TRUE MEANINGS.
RASTA use certain sources for inter: HOWELL ROBERT ATHLY ROGERS, FITZ BALINTINE PETTERSBURG… KEBRA NGAST (a 14th Ethiopian text).
The B. as key for understanding past and present, and for predicting the FUTURE.
The B. as a source of beliefs and practices, and source of REVELATION.
According to the BIBLE:
Ethiopia, birthplace of humanity. The B. is an acco of Black Africa, God’s favoured. The B. was written in AMHARIC
God’s word, made flesh. H.S., the LAMB
Certain foods banned
Dreadlocks
Repatriation
The sanctioning of MARIHUANA
Tree of life: TWELVE MANNER of fruits, and the leaves for HEALING
GRASS for cattle, HERB for the service of men
DOGMA
There is no Catechism and no Creed for them.No dogma.
Fluid system belief , open to interpretation, following personal experience and intuition.
No authority, no orthodoxy.
Following many Judeo Christian principles, always on an AFRO-CENTRIC way
BIBLE & SLAVERY
The Bible as a weapon of rebellion. If MASTERS denied SLAVES of litteracy and education, thanks to MISSIONARY activity, they acquired them with the B., where servitude and captivity are followed by REBELLION.
Blacks identify with the B.’s character in their desire to TRANSFORM their CONDITION.
1920s. GARVEY’s UNI.NEG.IMPR.ASS, colourful, it had an organisational impact in the US, which reverb in the Caribbean, in Central America, an in Africa. His use of the B. and his understanding of COLONIALISM, PRECIPITATED the BIRTH of R.
”See God through our black spectacles”!. The God of Ethiopia. In 1930 the Bibl. prophecy, fulfilled: H.S., Prince of Peace, Father God, Son of God, God of Peace, Counsellor… He follows a long tradition of African gods: the Pharaohs, Yoruba, Asante…
DREADLOCKS
For African societies, they made men WISE, PRIESTLY. Like a Crown.
Symbol of strength: biblical Samsom.
Hindu Sadhus?. Mau Nau fighters?
Egyp.Pharaohs adorned their heads with SERPENTS, resting on their forehead, stressing the significance of the BRAIN.
In Yoruba ORI means “head”, source of wisdom, spirit.
Initiates have to shy away from touching and washing. A pivotal ceremony is the INITIATING IN HEADWASHING.
Historically, RASTAS have been shorn of their locks when imprisoned.
Dreadlocks associated with homelessness and with mental illnesses.
For non Rastas, dreadlocks have been seen as wild, unattractive.
Nubbies are people who hair just started to grow dreads.
Ethiopian Orthodox Church bans them.
Bobo Ashanti hide them with turbans.
With the recognition of RASTA as a religion all this is changing. The High Court in Malawi recognised in 2030 the right of pupils in state schools to wear them.
APPEARANCE
Demarcation from Babylon aesthetics.
Long bears
African Dashiki
Rastacaps, in African colours.
There are “clean face” Rastas
VEGETARIANISM
Following the Ancient Egyptians the pig is an unclean animal.
Fundamentalist RASTAFARIANISM impose an strict vegetarianism, and in some instances veganism
RAS TAFARI, that is H.S.
Two AMARINYNYA WORDS, contracted.
RASTA is intrinsically linked with HS. Praised and esteemed, he is a central figure.Although there are various interpretation of his figure and how it relates to JESUS.
Second Coming, Messiah , Manifestation of God… Part of the Trinity…Descendant of David (as Jesus)…the MAKONNEN dynasty descendants of SALOMON and the QUEEN OF SHEEBA?…
OR, the embodiment of Christs‘s TEACHINGS.
According to 12 TRIBES, H.S is a messenger, a manifestado God.
He was given the name of KING OF KINGS (and others).
An AFRICAN SYMBOL, an Africa which is source of culture, heritage, spirituality.
His death meant a CRISIS OF FAITH. Some denied his death.He was buried in the palace, and his body was only recovered in 1992.
Hs. always denied any semi divine character, an he never encouraged RASTAFARIANISM.
Rasta and Pan-Africanism. FLAG: Red, Gold, Green, Black
GARVEY used red green black as colours of the PAN-AFRICAN flag represented by the UNIVERSAL NEGRO IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATION.
Blood (of martyrs), vegetation, skin
Goldd is added from the JAMAICAN FLAG, becoming a symbol of the wealth in minerals and raw materials of Africa.
Used by Rastas and Pan-Africanists, and by many newly independent African states. The LION OF JUDAH, H.S.’s Ethiopian flag, is often added.
RASTA tenets:Repatriation and reparations
Following GARVEY.Back to the roots, back to Africa. Calls to resettlement ! SIERRA LEONE, LIBERIA
First, preacher BLYDEN promoted African pride, and the preservation of their traditions, customs, institutions
Ethiopia, mentioned in various biblical pasapsages, was accorded a special status by the movement. It was seen as equivalent to Africa
Cooperativism
Missions to Africa. Reception by KENYATTA and NKRUMAH
Occupation of lands
Music
Reasoning sessions: drums, chanting, dance, in order to commune with, and praise, YAH. Music as healing, curing. They used older Christian tunes, to which they added original Rasta songs.
AKETE: 3 drum set as a bass line, plus rattles and tambourines
FUNDEH DRUM
PETA DRUM
Popular music develops as a medium:
SKA, form of expression of protest
REGGAE, from 1968. Using patois, becomes a medium for social commentary (like CALYPSO).
THE WAILERS and PETER TOSH refer to CANNABIS in their songs.
”BEAT DOWN BABYLON”, Junior BYLES.
In the 70s seen as music of the oppress. For some, too commercial.
From REGGAE came DUB, employing Rasta terminology. However Reggae does not mean Rasta.
Protestant Evangelicals have used Reggae.
Language
Rastafari ‘dread-talk’ or iyaric is a conscious construction of language as a form of religious and political expression. It is based on the Jamaican dialect, or patois, in particular the syntax and grammar. The syntax is almost devoid of subject-object opposition and verbs. Rastafari use words philosophically. The pronouns ‘me’ and ‘you’ are replaced with ‘I and I’. This is to try to overcome binary oppositions and identify with the sufferers and oppressed of society. The use of ‘I’ as the first and second-person pronoun is a way of reminding each person of their worth and value as not a ‘slave by nature’. ‘I’ is used as both subject and object. ‘I’ also replaces the prefixes in certain words, such as ‘I-ceive’ instead of ‘receive’, ‘desire’ becomes ‘I-sire’, and ‘create’ becomes ‘I-rate’. The use of ‘I’ expresses the unity and interconnectedness of all persons as incarnations of Jah. ‘I’ stands for the ability to see. It is a central concept of Rastafari word/sound/power. ‘I’ is aware of the connection to Jah, whereas ‘me’ is unconscious of this. Seeing and knowing are synonymous for the Rastafari. They change a negative to a positive sound vibration e.g. ‘dedicate’ to ‘livicate’, ‘library’ to ‘truebrary’. They make sound vibrations descriptive, e.g. ‘destroy’ to ‘downstroy’ because destruction tears things down. Rastafari refer to themselves as kings and queens, and the knitted tams that cover their dreads are called ‘crowns’.
Rastafari have a verbal culture centred on philosophising. It is a formulation of language that is used as a way of fostering group identity. ‘Reasoning’ is the name given to Rastafari discourse, in which members come together spontaneously on a regular basis to have lengthy discussions on any subject; people join and leave fluidly, topics change rapidly. It is how they interpret the world. Rastafari avoid language that contributes to servility, self-degradation, and objectification. They try to use language that sounds like what it is, for example ‘down-pression’ in place of ‘oppression’ because it drags you down. Language and music have power for the Rastafari. Chanting the name of Haile Selassie resurrects him. Words have creative force. This idea comes from the African concept of nommo, that words and word-sounds have innate power. Emancipation requires a new language to liberate; the language of Babylon enslaves. This is a process rather than a defined lexicon. It is a way of fighting against oppression and slavery through language, which they view as a spiritual battle, a battle of consciousness expressed through language.
ORGANISATIONS
BROTHER ZORRO
ETHIOPIAN WORLD FEDERATION, Portobello Road, 1972.
1968. KENNINGTON TABERNACLE, HQ of the 12 Tribes of Israel, 1974.
More about Rastafarianism
CARIBBEAN FOOD
It reflects the mixture of peoples who have settled on the region, drawing African, Indian, Chinese, European cuisines, in addition to that of the CARIBBEAN indigenous population.
Little attention, great potential.
ACKEE and SALT FISH. Flakes of salted cod mixed with the yellow fruit, that looks like scrambled egg when cooked.
CRAB and CALLALOO (a spinach-like vegetable )SOUP.
CURRIED GOAT. The taste for curries and rice has spread right across the region, although the Asian population is concentrated in GUYANA and TRINIDAD.
RICE and PEAS, made with coconut milk and pepper or chili.
PEPPERPOT. A hot stew made with a variety of meats (oxtails, pig’s trotters, pig’s tails) with Cassareep, a thick black liquid made from cassava root, often with additional spices, which is used as a base for many sauces
BLACK MUSIC
The rhythms brought by Afro-Caribbean people mixed with the music of the European settlers: that is the origin of modern pop music.
Ragtime, gospel, blues, jazz, rock and rock, soul, reggae. Black musicians have been in the forefront of all that.
In Britain Black musicians first played soul in an American style, then later a lighter type of soul was evident. IMAGINATION and FIVE STAR are two bands showing that trend.
They popularised reggae.
The chart success for Black reggae musicians has been limited, while THE POLICE used reggae rhythms with great commercial success.
LINTON KWESI-JOHNSON recorded several albums, where lyrics commented on the Black British experience.
More recently, in British pop music, in a variety of styles, an explosion of Black talent, popular in the music charts and influential across the whole musical scene (SADE, JOAN ARMATRADING, SEAL, TERENCE TRENT D’ARBY, SOUL II SOUL).
Until the late 80s there were no legal stations specialising in Black music, pirate radios filled the gap. CHOICE FM became the principal station after radios were permitted.
RIOTS
For people who do not know the place, Brixton is often a bit feared, due to the memories of the 1980s riots
A generation later after the first arrivals, simmering hostility between the young Black generation and the police, combined with economic decline and culminated in the 1981, and successive, riots.
Social and economic problems. Recession in the UK. Unemployment, high crime rate, lack of adequate housing (dilapidated, rundown). Particularly affecting the West Indian and African populations.
Unemployment in Brixton affected 13% of the pop. but 25,4 % of the people of ethnic minorities. In Black youths the figure rose to 55%.
1980: 31.000 crimes in the whole Lambeth. The BRIXTON DIVISION alone: 10.000. Between 76 and 80. Brixton accounted for 35% of the criminality, 49% of violent thefts.
Uneasyness between police and community. Resentment, distrust, due to heavy handedness.
The NEW CROSS MASSACRE
January 1981. 14 deaths in an arson attack against a house, during a party. The police investigation was very inadequate, ending in verdict of accident.
A MARCH from DEPTFORD to HYDE PARK was organised by Black activists, including DARCUS HOWE and LEILA HASSAN.
There were isolated cases of confrontation with the police, but the national press unloaded the full weight of racial stereotyping.
The 1981 UPRISING
10-12 April. Worst day, Bloody Saturday, according to TIME mag.
Police started OPERATION SWAMP 1981 (MARGARET THATCHER, in 1978, had declared that “the IK ought be swamped by people of different cultures”).
Uniformed patrols and police in plain clothes made extensive and heavy use of the SUS LAW,stopping and searching people (people was stopped and arrested when they were suspected by their actions, although they were not actually committing any crime). The Afro- Caribbean community accused the police of targeting DISPROPORTIONATELY Black people.
10 April. A police officer spotted MICK BAILEY towards him.He stopphim and found him bleeding. Mike broke away but he was stopped again, in ATLANTIC ROAD. He was found to have a 4 inch stab wound.
Police and friends with a kitchen roll helped him. Police tried to put him in a waiting minivan, while crowds were gathering. They thought that police was not do8ng enough. The mini cab pulled away and a police car arrived, and they put BAILEY in it, in order to take him to hospital.
But the youth congregated started shouting against the police, taking for granted that they were arresting him. The crowd pulled him out. The rumour started to spread that”a youth was left to die” by police. Youths turned on the police.
Increased police patrols in RAILTON ROAD carrying on SWAMP that evening, during the night, and next day.
The local community believed that police brutality led to the death of the youth. Gathered crowds fuelled tensions, that erupted while while stop and search continued.
In BRIXTON ROAD, filled with people, who pelted the with bricks.
11. April. 9 O’CLOCK NEWS reported: 46 police injured, shops looted, police car set on fire, the fire brigade attack with stones and bottles, on the corner of RAILTON RD and SHAKESPEARE ROAD.
Police called for assistance, from all over London. And they did not have adequate helmets or fireproof shields, and had trouble with the radio communication,
Violence and destruction peaked at 8pm. Mediation has failed. 2 pubs and 26 business had been set alight.
By 9.30 1.000 police had been dispatched to Brixton.
By 1 am 12 April violence had largely subdued.
Police numbers grew to,over 2.500. Rioting had fizzled out early Sunday morning,
279 police and 45 protesters injured.
100 vehicles burnt down.
Around 140 buildings damaged/looted (30 burnt down).
82 arrests.
5.000 people involved.
3-11 July
More unrest took place in Ldn, Birm. Liv. Nott.
M.T., on 13 April, dismissed that racism and unemployment were causes beneath the disturbances: “Nothing justifies…” , “money cannot buy either trust or racial harmony” (more investment, rejected), “no one should condone violence “, “they were criminals”…
Instead, according to the council leader, the police behaviour amounted to an “occupation army”
Public Enquire, SCARMAN REPORT
Commissioned by WILLIAM WHITELAW. Attempt to rest public confidence.
Conclusions: and recommendations:
- stop and research had been used disproportionately and in a discriminatory way agains Blacks.
- anew code for POLICE BEHAVIOUR (1984 Act)
- establisment of POLICE COMPLAINTS COMMISSION, 1985
- It was recognised that complex political, social and economic factors created a disposition towards violent protest, and that racial disadvantage and inner city decline were problems that had to be tackled.
However, many recommendations were not implemented.
In popular culture
THE CLASH. Guns of Brixton
It predates riots, depicting feelings of discontent because police heavy handedness.
EDDIE GRANT. Electric Avenue
It refers to the riots
ONLY FOOLS AND HORSES
DEL BOY selling paving slabs to rioters
East of Acre Lane novel
Linton Kwesi Johnson poems
Black Uhury song
Angelic upstairs song
Lover’s Rock radio play
Orphan Black, BBC show
Steve McQueen. Small Axe
After the 1981 UPRISING, the community did not feel they could trust the MET. Afro-Caribbean people sensed the INSTITUTIONAL RACISM.
1985 BRIXTON RIOT, the second major one
28 Sept. Police, while searching 21 years old MICHAEL GROCE, in relation to a robbery and a suspected firearms offence, and believing that he was hiding in the house, they shot his mother DOROTHY “CHERRY” GROCE.
She was left paralysed for life.
It followed 2 days of rioting. After groups gathered, marched towards the Police station, chants of “murderers”, then skirmishes, first cars burn…
Police deployed in riot gear, the central shopping district was cordoned off.
Police lost control, being attacked with bricks and staked, cars upturned and set alight, petrol bombs thrown, looting, some drivers assaulted
DAVID HODGE, a photojournalist, died, from attacks of looters .
43 civilians, 10 police officers hurt. A number of fires, 1 building destroyed. 55 vehicles burnt down. 58 burglaries committed, including acts of looting.
DOROTHY had migrated from JAMAICA in her early teens. Her son MICHAEL had been brought up in residential care (TINWORTH HOUSE, VAUXHALL, a rough housing estate). From childhood he had been exposed to guns, and he was in street gangs.He had been 15 times in prison, he had 50 convictions.
He had been released 2 months before the events. He had been given a gun, which he fired during an argument with his girlfriend. When the police turned up he put the weapon into the officers mouth, and fled to his mother and sisters house.
The police raided the house, including an armed CID officer, who shot and injured DOROTHY, who was in bed. She was taken to ST.THOMAS’S HOSP.
30 Sept. The DEP.ASSIST.POLICE COMMISSIONER recognised “the tragic death of Mrs.Groce” and the “genuine feelings”of the community but talked about the unruly criminal element.
PO LOVELOCK was prosecuted and acquitted.
The MP made no admission of liability, but the GROCE family received a £500.000 compensation.
2014 INQUEST only recognised a casual link.
A petition to PM was made to support with funds the family
2014. The Coroners Court recognised the MO failures (raid plan and its implementation leading to the death of D.G.).
The MP recognised the inadequacies of the operation and the MP COMMISSIONER apologised unreservedly, and as as well for such a late acknowledgement
Michael, on hearing about his mother’s shooting, turned himself into police with lawyer PAUL BOATENG. After being interviewed, he was released on bail, then charged for gun possession.
VOICE published a poem he wrote apologising to his mum.
He stood to help the community to recover, running workshops on poetry, personal development, motivation… for schools, and giving talks about his past mistakes
PECKHAM, TOXTETH and TOTTENHAM suffered subsequent riots.
1995
Now
Now, Brixton is a calmer place. Even cool. Still though it is a poor district.
Various government initiatives have attempted to get to the root of the discontent, but many failed.
Has the real problems of racism and unemployment been addressed?
SQUATS
SQUATTING and COMMUNES: EXPERIMENTS IN LIVING
The BLOOMSBURY GROUP
PEASANTS REVOLT
DIGGERS
144 PICCADILLY, off.the LONDON STREET COMMUNE
BONNING SQUARE
FRESTONIA
CENTRE POINT
TOLMERS SQUARE, SOMERS TOWN
LIBRARY HOUSE SQUAT (MINET LIB.)
EEL PIE ISLAND HOTEL
ST.AGNES PLACE, KENNINGTON
CENTRO IBÉRICO
WAPPIN AUTONOMY CENTRE, METROPOLITAN WHARF.
HACKNEY (HARRY ENFIELD)
M3-M11 LINK Road protest